What Social Factors Can Contribute To Mental Illness?

What Social Factors Can Contribute To Mental Illness? A mental illness is a psychological abnormality of an individual, and significantly affects the individuals emotional stability. There are different types of mental illnesses with different degrees of severity such as; depression, anxiety, eating disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar mood disorder and personality disorder. When a person develops a mental illness, emotions can be so overwhelming that they develop an inability to cope with everyday activities such as: work, socialising, and maintaining a relationship. In extremity, people who suffer from depression may find it difficult to physically care for themselves, or leave their home. The less common mental illnesses may involve psychosis; these include bipolar mood disorder and schizophrenia. People experiencing these types of psychosis lose their sense of reality, feelings and the world surrounding them. A psychotic episode may involve delusions and/or hallucinations which can confuse or threaten the individuals peers. (Sciencemus eum.2012) This essay will explore the social factors that can contribute to mental disorders, it will analyse the three dominant theories: the stress theory, social structure theory and the labelling theory. It will explore each theory in turn and look at the research, assumptions and criticisms. The sociological approach looks at the environmental or social factors, which are external to an individual. It suggests that, these factors can cause an overwhelming stress; leading to a breakdown in mental health. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:121) The stress theory is derived from the notion that when social stressors are accumulated, mental health problems are more likely to occur. The term stress or stressors was introduced in the mid 1930s by a physiological researcher, Hans Selye. When using these terms it is meant that stress is anything that causes the body wear and tear. Selye used laboratory animals to experiment; the stressors he used were extreme hot and cold temperatures, overcrowding of the animals in cages, and electric shocks. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:122). This experiment showed that when animals are exposed to such stimuli, they show three stages of reactions known as general adaptation syndrome (G.A.S). The first stage of reaction was flight or fight, the animal becomes aggr essive and ready to fight or retreat from the threat. In the second stage, the animal reacts with resistance; regaining equilibrium, it continues to combat the effects caused by the stress. The final stage is exhaustion; the bodys ability to defend itself becomes depleted leaving the individual more susceptible to infection or disease. Selye experiment proved a link between prolonged exposure to stress and illness. In the years to follow the research began to focus on the effects of stress in humans and social stressors (mainly major life events) (Horwitz Scheid 1999:122) Researches regarding major life events were carried out by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe. They defined major life events as: external changes which occur in peoples lives and require them to make major psychological adjustments. They proposed that increased amounts of readjustments could cause exhaustion of the ability to cope; this would cause the person to be at a higher risk of illness. Holmes and Rahe devised a life events checklist with 43 life stresses that may cause a person to make adjustments. The checklist was named the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) Each event on the checklist was called a Life Change Unit (LCU), with a different weight for each type of stress. The more events the patient added up, the higher the score became. The higher the score meant the larger the weight of each event; this made the individual more likely to become ill. (McLean Link 1994:162) The checklist allowed social researchers to determine whether being exposed to social stressors coul d cause a breakdown in a persons health. The problems with Holmes and Rahes SRRS are that there were many major life events missing from the list, such as: exposing ones homosexuality and losing custody of a child. It also assumes that both positive and negative life events cause behavioural adjustments, leading to overtaxing ones ability to cope. Later research found that negative life events had a more severe impact on individuals psychological health than positive life events. (Ayers.S 2007:131). After years of research into the mental health effects of stressors, considerable variations have been found. There are three dominant approaches to explain these variations. The first approach looks at the stressor itself and examines its characteristics. When looking at the characteristics of the stressor and familiarising with Holmes and Rahes SRRS, there is a clear indication of the difference in the severity of affect for negative life events. Each event can vary in how stressful it is or how it affects a person emotionally; this is because of the differences in their desirability, predictability, controllability or their magnitude. (Thoits 1983:33-103) Research shows that the undesirable or uncontrollable events are the ones which have a greater detrimental effect. (Ibid). Although the first approach was originally designed to categorize the different ways that stressful situations effect people psychologically, what it actually helped to do was establish that different types o f stress manifest in different ways. For example, work or family based issues, effect people differently to financial problems or illness. Furthermore, the different characteristics of each instance in life alter how it affects the mind. So, the timing and circumstances surrounding a life event make a difference to how a person copes and any long term effects it will have.(Ibid). In contrast, the second theoretical approach focuses on the characteristics of the person who is experiencing the stressor. Variations in the effects of stressors, is a function of variations of a persons vulnerability or how they react to stressors. There has been a lot of research on coping and social support. When a person is dealing with negative stressors they rely upon social and personal characteristics, also known as coping resources. (Perlin Schooler 1978:2-21) The social and personal characteristics can be found in an individuals social network, this is where the individual will seek emotional or practical support. Such support systems can raise a persons self esteem, and help them to stay in control. Research examines to what extent individuals or groups vary in how much personal or social resources they possess e.g. self esteem, mastery and social support.(Ibid) The research indicates that the more of these resources people have, the greater the negative impact of stress ful life events are buffered. Overall, the studies carried out for this approach signify that people who have strong coping resources and have access to functional, structural and emotional support have the advantage of being able to tackle the psychological consequences of stressors, easier than those whom do not have personal or social resources.(Ibid) Lastly, the third theoretical approach attributes variations in psychological harm caused by stressful life events to variations in the larger social context surrounding stressors. Advocates of this approach argue that when an event or strain occurs, the social circumstances are important for explaining variations of their psychological effects. This is because they form the personal meanings and emotional significance of the stressors. Blair Wheaton (1990:209) shows that; a role loss such as divorce is often less distressing to individuals who have experienced a lot of marital stress, than for those who have a less stressful marriage. A similar study by Deborah Umberson (1987:306) indicates that widowhood brings more depression to people who suffer from household and financial strain than those who do not experience these stressors. The stress theory is well suited for the purpose of explaining why lower class people are more likely to have a mental illness than middle or upper class people. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:128) However, the theory is non specific for example, it does not explain how some groups are more susceptible to certain disorders than other groups such as: depression and anxiety are mostly experienced by women, and men are more susceptible to anti social disorders. (Ibid) Furthermore, this theory does not apply to all mental disorders such as psychoses: a very complex and serious disorder, which is better explained by biological explanations or ones childhood socialization. Price et al (1988) show experiments which indicate that interventions which alter an individuals coping strategy and offer social support and encouragement, do reduce negative emotional reactions to major life events. Therefore, the stress theory is a promising tool for administering mental health interventions. (Horwitz Schei d 1999:129) A blanket term used to describe more specific sociological theories regarding mental illness etiology is structural strain theory; which looks at the broader organizations of society and finds the basis of distress, and where some groups are at a disadvantage when compared to others. (Ibid) A useful example of structural strain theory is Mertons (1938) anomie theory; this theory attempts to explain criminal behaviour, rebellious behaviour, addictive behaviour, as well as mental illness. Merton uses the American society to explain his theory, he argues that the American culture highly emphasize how wealth and success are the most important values an individual can posses. They are taught that the highest goal in life is to strive for success, with education being the key means to achieve economic success. Mertons assumption is that most people agree that education is the most legitimate route to achieving success. There is a majority of the society who unfortunately have their means t o success blocked. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:130)These groups live in neighbourhoods which are poor and lack school facilities and competent teachers. Thus, they lack encouragement, preparation and funding for progression onto higher education. This causes class and race based discrimination within the schools and the workforce, leading to a defeat in efforts made to succeed when attempting to follow the legitimate paths.(Ibid) Mertons use of the term anomie describes a gap between the desire to be financially successful and the means of entry to acceptable education or employment. He argues that individuals who experience the gap will adapt by changing their goals or looking for alternative means. Merton described 5 adaptive responses, which are; conformity, ritualism, innovation, retreatism and rebellion (Morine.N:2009). The people who conform follow rules shared by the cultures goals, and carry out legitimate means to achieve them. Even if they are doubtful that their efforts will pay off. Ritualists give up on achieving success. However, they continue to behave in a socially acceptable manner; for instance working steadily in a job with low income and low prospects. The conformist and ritualist do not cause society many problems. Whereas, the innovator, retreatists and rebels cause major problems for society. (Ibid)This is because: innovators give up on success, but they still desire wealth and use ille gitimate means to achieve it such as; committing fraud or tax evasions. Retreatists also give up on success and retreat from the world surrounding them into substance abuse or become mentally ill.(Ibid) Rebels use threatening behaviour to achieve success, they reject socially acceptable goals and create new goals with new ways of achieving them such as; being involved in riots or social movements (Ibid). The main point of this analysis is to show how mental illness is a reaction to environmental demands and the result of an individuals legitimate pathways being blocked; due to the hierarchical or structure of society causing a disadvantage for some social groups. (Ibid) Most structural strain ideology of mental illness suggest that, macro strains in social and economic systems can cause increased rates of mental illness for certain groups. (Horwitz Scheid,1999:131) Emile Durkheim (1897) analyzed the social factors which can cause suicide; he found that the distributions of suicide within and across societies were unequal. Durkheim argued that the social integration of groups and societies differ. People are bound together by the balance of shared norms. These norms regulate a persons passion and maintain the ties to one another; in order to prevent unreasonable behaviour from acts of passion or emotional impulses. If a society is too weakly, or too strongly integrated, or are subjected to rapid changes it can cause conditions of structural strain. There are two main assumptions of this theory; the first is that, minority groups, women, the poor, unmarried people and the elderly are all at a socioeconomic disadvantage.(ibid) The second assumption is that high rates of mental health breakdowns are caused by the socioeconomic disadvantage. In comparison to the stress theory, the structural strain theory is better suited for explaining that mental illness is not distributed randomly in society, rather it is closely linked to socially or economically disadvantaged groups of society.(Ibid) It conveys that, the structure of society itself could contribute to the epidemiology of mental illness. The stress theory does not fully capture this idea and biological and psychological theories bypass it altogether. The disadvantages of the structural strain theory are that, structural theorists do not present how the broad social structures and socioeconomic trends are actualized in individuals lives. They also tend to give priority to econom ic factors and disregard other large scale changes such as, poor quality family relationships (absentee fathers, increased divorce rate and child or spouse abuse) which could affect mental health. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:132) Therefore, it is unclear of how the macro social trends cause psychological distress. It is not only socioeconomic disadvantage that are sources of stress, but interpersonal relationships can also be a contributing factor. It is interesting to note that, the structural strain theory has the same basis as the stress theory. The concept that the stress theory is essential to support the structural strain theory makes this theory weak.(Ibid) The societal reaction theory (labelling theory) is similar to the structural strain theory in the sense that they both offer a unique sociological explanation for the cause of mental illnesses; it is often referred to as the radical sociological explanation. The fundamental idea of the labelling theory is how the identity and behaviour of an individual can be influenced by how they are described and categorized by others in the society. (Pilgrim Rogers 1999:13) The theory looks at the linguistic tendency of a majority to negatively label those perceived as deviant from the shared norms, and is connected with the idea of a stereotyping and self-fulfilling prophecy. As a use of phenomenology, the theory speculates that the labels which can be applied to an individual can influence their behaviour. In particular, the application of stigmatizing or negative labels such as: criminal can promote deviant behaviour and therefore becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Consequently, the labeling theory assumes that social deviance can be prevented by using a social shaming reaction and replacing moral anger with tolerance.(Ibid) The labeling theory has been closely linked to the mentally ill. In 1966, Thomas Scheff published his writings: Being Mentally Ill. Scheff questioned the common perceptions of psychological disorders by declaring that mental illness is exhibited entirely as a result of societal influence. Scheff disputed that society perceives certain behaviour as deviant, and certain expectations are then placed on the individuals. Over a period of time this will unconsciously alter the individuals behaviour; in order to fulfil the expectations. The criteria given for different mental disorders are not always filled by the people who are diagnosed with them just because they all suffer from the same disorder. Scheff believed they are simply fulfilled due to the mentally ill being led to presume they are supposed to conform and act in a certain manner and eventually they do. (Pilgrim Rogers 1999:14) Scheff received multiple criticisms for his theory; the most notable critic is Walter Gove. (Pilgrim Rogers 1999:15) Gove has frequently argued an almost opposite of his theory; he feels strongly that society has very little influence on mental illness. Instead, he argues that any societal perceptions of people who are mentally ill are derived as a result of the individuals behaviour. Goves ideology is that, the mentally ill behave uncommonly due to their disorders, so they come to be treated as being different. Most of the sociology theorists view labeling and mental illness between the extremes of Scheff and Gove. It is difficult to deny, given both research findings and common sense; that perception society gives to crazy people has had a detrimental effect on them. Realistically, it seems that labeling can accentuate and perpetuate a mental illness. However, it is rare that it is the complete cause of the symptoms. (Ibid) Each of the sociological theories can be integrated. For example, structural strain theories have indicated that risks for certain social groups are created by the way in which societies are organized. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:137) The stress theory can assist in helping to bridge the gap between micro and macro structure, by giving an explanation of how structured risks are actualized as stressful events in peoples lives(Ibid) Also, the stress theory suggests that accumulation of strains and life events can overwhelm an individuals psychosocial resources and their ability to cope; thus leading to mental illness. This is similar to primary deviance in the labelling theorys terms. (Ibid) In conclusion, there has been a lot of research to prove a link between sociological ideology and mental illness. The stress theory proves how the more an individual is subjected to major negative stressors; the higher risk they have of psychological breakdown (flight or fight). Also, it indicates how an individuals coping resources can assist with overcoming psychological breakdowns (resistance) and lastly, how overwhelming exposure to stressors can cause exhaustion and a breakdown of an individuals mental state (exhaustion). (Horwitz Scheid 1999:122). The structural strain theory focuses more on society as a whole and determines which groups are more susceptible to mental illness. Groups of low social status, living in poor and disadvantaged areas are more susceptible to unemployment, being victims of crime etc and are more likely to become involved in illegitimate means to success or mental illness. (Horwitz Scheid 1999:130) The labelling theory then explains how the individuals who suffer from mental illness as a reaction to overwhelming stressors and/or being disadvantaged due to hierarchical or societys structure are then stigmatized and unfairly stereotyped. (Pilgrim Rogers 1999:13) It also shows a link that those who receive the label find it difficult to remove the label and often causing the individual to become entrapped with no other choice but to act in the way that they are meant to. (Ibid)

Free Things They Carried Essays: Women in Vietnam :: Things They Carried Essays

The Things They Carried: Women in Vietnam In the book The Things They Carried, by Tim O'Brien gender stereotypes of women who fought in the Vietnam War are represented through some of the short stories. One short story in particular is "Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong" which describes a woman who participated in the Vietnam War and went beyond some of her gender roles that were placed on her. In this war women had certain roles they had to fulfill with many of them being non-traditional ones. This paper will discuss the concept of Cultural Studies in literature about the Vietnam War. Women in the Vietnam War had numerous roles they had to fulfill both physically and mentally. For example in the story "Sweetheart of the song Tra Bong" the character Mary Anne is flown down by her boyfriend to Vietnam. She is dressed in "White culottes and a sexy pink sweater" which is very traditional for a woman (O'Brien 90). Right of the bat the men were attracted to her and was especially liked when she wore her cut-off blue jeans and a swimsuit top that was black (95). In this instance she was representing a traditional feminine role in her dress and her actions. Traditionally women the war were nurses, Women worked for the Red Cross or worked in other types of medical facility. Also you found women who were on the Clerical staff and who were Support Personnel. Only on a few occasions did you find a woman who actually fought in the war. Two women from another source stated that "Women served alongside men in that sink-pit of War." Some roles women had were non-traditional. In the same story that was represented in the preceding paragraph Mary Anne show some of her own non-traditional roles. She becomes very fond of military paraphernalia and even blackens her face with charcoal and carries around an M-16 (102). Her hygiene also becomes second hand. "No cosmetics, no fingernail filling. She stopped wearing jewelry, cut her hair short and wrapped it in a green bandana"(98). Here she is taking on masculine features and her feminine ways are forgotten. Mary Anne also starts staying out late, and once even does not come in until the next day. Some nights the men would go out and look for her, and her boyfriend even accuses her of sleeping with other men, because of her awkward ways. Free Things They Carried Essays: Women in Vietnam :: Things They Carried Essays The Things They Carried: Women in Vietnam In the book The Things They Carried, by Tim O'Brien gender stereotypes of women who fought in the Vietnam War are represented through some of the short stories. One short story in particular is "Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong" which describes a woman who participated in the Vietnam War and went beyond some of her gender roles that were placed on her. In this war women had certain roles they had to fulfill with many of them being non-traditional ones. This paper will discuss the concept of Cultural Studies in literature about the Vietnam War. Women in the Vietnam War had numerous roles they had to fulfill both physically and mentally. For example in the story "Sweetheart of the song Tra Bong" the character Mary Anne is flown down by her boyfriend to Vietnam. She is dressed in "White culottes and a sexy pink sweater" which is very traditional for a woman (O'Brien 90). Right of the bat the men were attracted to her and was especially liked when she wore her cut-off blue jeans and a swimsuit top that was black (95). In this instance she was representing a traditional feminine role in her dress and her actions. Traditionally women the war were nurses, Women worked for the Red Cross or worked in other types of medical facility. Also you found women who were on the Clerical staff and who were Support Personnel. Only on a few occasions did you find a woman who actually fought in the war. Two women from another source stated that "Women served alongside men in that sink-pit of War." Some roles women had were non-traditional. In the same story that was represented in the preceding paragraph Mary Anne show some of her own non-traditional roles. She becomes very fond of military paraphernalia and even blackens her face with charcoal and carries around an M-16 (102). Her hygiene also becomes second hand. "No cosmetics, no fingernail filling. She stopped wearing jewelry, cut her hair short and wrapped it in a green bandana"(98). Here she is taking on masculine features and her feminine ways are forgotten. Mary Anne also starts staying out late, and once even does not come in until the next day. Some nights the men would go out and look for her, and her boyfriend even accuses her of sleeping with other men, because of her awkward ways.

Rashomon Essay

In the 1950’s Japanese crime, mystery, and drama film, â€Å"Rashomon†, directed by Akira Kurosawa, provides not only a number of intuitions into the human mind, but while doing so, is also able to question the nature of truth itself. The story unfolds in different and unexpected ways that gives one interesting arguments on the nature of truth, human weaknesses and trust. Akira Kurosawa’s tells the story of a murder. It flashes back to the murder four times and the story of the murder is told by a different character each time, while three of them tell their reasonable though completely incompatible versions of the story. By the usage of music, specific camera shots, and the scenery this film not only makes one think about truth, but most importantly if humans can survive without it. Akira Kurosawa’s first flashback within a flashback was the woodcutter who claimed to the authorities that he founded the dead body in the middle of the woods. He first begins by telling his version of the story to a commoner; as this flashback takes place many suspicions are being made. As the flashback begins it starts with a shot of the sun moving west through the cracks of branches and leaves above, then back to him walking through a knot of trees and bushes. The scenery is gray, dark, and gloomy; the melody while he walks is being played repeatedly by drums, oboes, and pungi. Just by these first analyses made in the woodcutters’ first flashback one can tell that he might be lying. There are four shots being shown of leaves and branches moving against clear skies in different directions and between each of those four shots it shows him walking through the woods in circles. The meaning of these shots and the repetitiveness of the melody might indicate that the woodcutter was lying about how he had found the dead body; he was trying to figure out a way of making the story sound reasonable by using the â€Å"It was a beautiful sunny day and I was walking through the woods to chop some wood† type of story line. † The woodcutter was basically just lost in his own lie. Furthermore, the woodcutter coming upon each of the objects while taking his â€Å"everyday stroll† made it even more believable to the authorities because it seemed as if he was â€Å"a regular woodcutter taking his usual path The woman’s version of the story was quite different from the woodcutters, obviously because she was the â€Å"victim†. The way she is portrayed in her own flashback is innocent, abused, and not cared/loved by her husband anymore. After the bandit took advantage of her and she tries to run towards her husband, she looks like a bright white dove trying to run to her savior. However, once the bandit pushes her to the ground the scenery turns dark and he rushes out through the dark woods. When the woman and samurai are alone, the woman just cries her eyes out as a sign to the authorities that she has been hurt and did not do anything to deserve this. Furthermore, when the woman is face to face with her husband, she looks at him; her eyes start to get wider and she starts to back away slowly as if he was a monster. His face is shown as serious, shadows hit his face, and he is still. That is when the woman backs away even faster and slowly covers her face with her hands. Kurosawa’s purpose here was probably to picture her as if she was trying to hide behind a mask because she knows she was lying, but did not want to tell the authorities what really happened. When she goes back up to her husband, after she ran to get a dagger, they look at each other once more and she insists for him to kill her, yet he just stands there. Once that occurs the scenery turns dark and her face becomes hit by shadows and fright. She begins to wobble around in front of her husband with a dagger pointing at him; this shot is probably to be shown as if her husband was a mirror, so basically she is looking at her reflection, which in this case is her husband who in her story is delineated as a monster and finally gets rid of â€Å"it† by killing him. After the woodcutter admits to the priest and the commoner that he had witnessed the crime, no one had any trust in him anymore. Just as all seems dreary and hopeless, a baby appears behind the gate. The woodcutter redeems himself and humanity in the eyes of the troubled priest, by adopting the infant. The infant is a sign of hope and a new beginning and once he adopted the infant the rain, the confusion, the dark and gloomy scenery all vanished. Each person can see the same event, but perceive the details of the event differently. As stated by the commoner, â€Å"Who’s honest nowadays? Everyone wants to forget nasty things so they invent different stories, it’s easier† (Rashomon). In this case the woodcutter knew the truth but did not tell the authorities because he was scared they would have blamed him as a uspect and he did not want to get involved. On the other hand the woman actually told the authorities that she had stabbed him. Nonetheless, she lied because she did not want them to know that a pure, noble woman surrendered to the love of a bandit and would stay with whoever won a duel between them. Today in a trial it would be very difficult to know, b ased solely on eyewitness accounts, just what is the truth. Akira Kurosawa’s way of portraying these flashbacks to each character created the viewers to believe their lies. However, the scenery, the shots taken, and the music of each individual give an idea as to who is lying; such as, the woodcutter who’s lie were portrayed when he walked through the forest for a long time before getting to his point, and the woman who cried to make them believe she was innocent of her own actions. It is difficult to forget the truth, but easier to cover it. Everyone should always tell the truth; even though, if you are a suspect. Without honesty people that are supposed to be punished for their crimes aren’t; they are just let free to wonder off and commit some other felonies.

Australia s International Student Market - 1420 Words

Australia, the U.S. and the U.K. have, in recent years, emerged as key players in the international student market. Australia has developed a strongly entrepreneurial approach to attracting the lucrative overseas student market, a key factor in is the potentially enormous profitability that ensues from Australia’s ability to attract â€Å"tens of thousands of students from several different countries† establishing a â€Å"diversified market with strong growth potential† (Verbik Lasanowski, 2007, p.5). One reason for Australia’s success in the international student market is that it has a high numbers of students from India and China and these two countries are generally regarded as â€Å"the world’s two most prominent source countries† (Ibid). Australia has had success in supplying the enormous demand for higher education for international students from these countries and the numbers of Chinese and Indian students seeking higher educatio n provision in Australia is expected to grow in the foreseeable future. There are several reasons why Australia has so much success in increasing international student numbers. These include effective marketing; English language; proximity to Asian countries; relatively affordable living and study costs and importantly, a quality education in terms of coursework and support for the needs of international students (Terrell, cited in Bartel Petersen, 1999, pp. 73-75). Walters (cited in Stiasny Gore, 2013) identified four main reasons why overseasShow MoreRelatedThe Micro Economy Of Australia922 Words   |  4 Pagesfactors influence their choices and how their decisions affect the goods markets by affecting the price, the supply and demand. 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